Emperyalizm, Devrim ve Siyasi Dönüşüm Modern Çin Tarihinin Kurucu Evreleri (1839-1921)

<jats:p>This study examines the foundational phases of modern Chinese history between 1839 and 1921 through the analytical framework of imperialism, revolution, and political transformation. Chinas historical trajectory is situated within the broader context of global modernization, with particular emphasis on the transformation of power relations, evolving economic structures, and the reconfiguration of international competition triggered by the Industrial Revolution. The book is structured around six main chapters. The first chapter addresses the global transformation initiated by the Industrial Revolution, focusing on the rise of new centers of power and the evolution of global economic structures from free trade to financial monopolization, as well as changing patterns in the distribution of resources and interests. The second chapter examines the structural vulnerabilities of the Qing Empire, shaped by the tension between the expansion of overseas trade and the persistence of a closed, center-oriented worldview, and analyzes how shifting power balances placed China in an increasingly vulnerable position. The third chapter explores the expansion of colonial rights concealed beneath the appearance of free trade, the deepening crisis following the outbreak of the Opium Wars, and the empires search for self-reform through initiatives such as the Self-Strengthening Movement. The fourth chapter analyzes the Sino-Japanese War, particularly naval battles, and evaluates how the failure to grasp the international conjuncture, ambiguous threat perceptions, and strategic miscalculations shaped the course of the war and accelerated the collapse of the Qing order. The fifth chapter focuses on the structural transformation initiated by the Xinhai Revolution, including republican reforms, efforts at social transformation, attempts at monarchical restoration, and the rise of regional military power centers. The final chapter examines the emergence of democratic consciousness through the New Culture Movement, the nationwide awakening triggered by the May Fourth Movement, the founding of the Chinese Communist Party, and the political and economic crises accompanying the transformation of power. The central argument of this study is that the transformations of this period did not unfold as a linear process directed by a single authority. Rather, they were shaped by the complex and often conflicting interactions among imperial elites, revolutionary organizations, regional military powers, Western states, and Japan. The persistent tension between institutional transformation and social change, as well as the gap between constitutional principles and everyday practices, constituted a defining feature of the period. In this context, the period between 1839 and 1921 should be understood not as an isolated historical phase, but as the initial and formative stage of a long-term process of transformation, whose unresolved tensions and accumulated dynamics profoundly shaped the subsequent trajectory of modern China. Keywords: Modernization Efforts in China; Opium Wars; Xinhai Revolution; Political Transformation; Qing Dynasty</jats:p>