Abstract
<jats:p>The article delves into the intricate relationship between the mountain gods, celestial gods, and divine kingship as depicted in the Old Tibetan documents (ca. 7th–12th c.), primarily focusing on the Tibetan Dunhuang manuscripts dating back to the era of the Tibetan Empire (ca. 7th c. to 842, Tib. Bod chen po). These invaluable records provide insights into the religious and social dynamics of early Tibet, a time marked by the interplay between Buddhism, introduced as a foreign religion, and the indigenous Tibetan religious practices centered around the cult of mountains. The article examines the identities and evolution of Tibetan mountain gods, focusing on Tanglha Yazhur (Tib. Thang lha ya bzhur) and Yarlha Shampo (Tib. Yar lha sham po) as case studies. It comprises four main sections: (1) Section one on local kings and their mountain gods, explores the equal, cooperative relationship between local kings (Tib. rgyal po, alt. rje) and their respective mountain gods, often collectively called ‘the group of the nine mountain gods’ (Tib. lha dgu). (2) In section two, the process of consolidating various local mountain gods into a unified imperial pantheon through the imperial divination ritual (Tib. mo) will be discussed. (3) Section three investigates the close relationship between the divine Tibetan emperors and their body gods (Tib. sku bla), examining in particular how this concept relates to that of mountain gods. (4) Finally, in section four, the paper explores the divine paternal kinship between Cha (Tib. Phyva) lineage or the Auspicious Deities, the highest class of celestial gods credited with creating the cosmos, the group of the nine mountain gods, and the seven celestial emperors (Tib. gnam lha khri bdun) of the Yarlung (Tib. Yar klungs) Dynasty which was built by the tribe of the Pugyel (Tib. sPu rgyal), the central political power that conquered the other local kingdoms and finally established the unified Tibetan Empire. In conclusion, the article posits that during the transitional phase from pre-imperial Tibet (up to ca. 600) to the Tibetan imperial period (ca. 600–850), mountain gods underwent a profound transformation. These mountain gods originally served as protectors and agents of local kings, then evolved into the unified pantheon gods and were revered as divine paternal relatives of the new Yarlung emperors who had vanquished the preceding local kings. Thus, the evolution of mountain gods’ identities in early Tibetan texts reflects the process of continuous centralisation of the emerging Tibetan imperial power.</jats:p>